Job Stress, Sector of Work, and Shift-Work Pattern as Correlates of Worker Health and Safety: A Study of a Manufacturing Company in Ghana

Job Stress, Sector of Work, and Shift-Work Pattern as Correlates
of Worker Health and Safety: A Study of a Manufacturing Company
in Ghana   International Journal of Business and Management; Vol. 9, No. 7; 2014
ISSN 1833-3850 E-ISSN 1833-8119
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education
59

Collins Badu Agyemang 1, Joseph Gerald Nyanyofio1 & Gerald Dapaah Gyamfi1
1 Faculty of Management, Department of Business Administration, University of Professional Studies, Accra,
Ghana
Correspondence: Collins Badu Agyemang, Faculty of Management, Department of Business Administration,
University of Professional Studies, Accra, Ghana. E-mail: agyemang.collins@yahoo.com
Received: March 13, 2014 Accepted: May 4, 2014 Online Published: June 22, 2014
doi:10.5539/ijbm.v9n7p59 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v9n7p59
Abstract
Worker health and safety must be viewed as a basic organizational policy and even a right. In view of this, the
study sought to ferret out the extent to which job stress, sector of work and shift work pattern correlates with
worker health and safety in a manufacturing company in Ghana. Using cross-sectional survey design, data were
collected from 120 employees using purposive and stratified sampling techniques. Three hypotheses were tested
using Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Independent Sample ‘t’ test. A significant correlation was found
between employee stress and worker health and safety. Thus an increase in employee stress will lead to a
decrease in worker health and safety and vice versa. No significant difference was found in the level of health
and safety among workers in the production sectors compared to workers in the non-production sectors. The
study established that employees who go through shift work will experience lower health and safety compared to
employees who do not go through shift-work. The present study is one of the foremost research attempts on
sector of work and worker health and safety with a comparative approach using sample from the manufacturing
setting in Ghana. The researchers recommend that employers take necessary steps towards introducing a culture
where a stress prevention plan exists and worker health and safety is prioritised. The researchers reckon this as
necessary step for policy implementation as worker health and safety policies are fragmented in most developing
countries.
Keywords: Stress, sector of work, shift-work pattern, worker health and safety, Ghana
1. Background to the Study
Research on health and safety has been consistently viewed differently for decades both as a humanitarian and a
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) by most employers (Adonteng, 2013). However, globally, most researchers
tend to focus on the antecedents of worker health and safety predominantly among health care providers
(Landsbergis, 2006; Letvak, 2005). Some researchers of stress (e.g. Turk, 2002; Willner, 1997) as antecedents of
health and safety veer toward reviewing or examining the existing models in an attempt to propose another.
Stress is the result of any emotional, physical, social, economic or other factor that requires a response to change
(Alberta, 2008). Job stress results from the interaction of the worker and the conditions of work (Durand, 2003).
Views differ on the importance of worker characteristics versus working conditions as the primary cause of job
stress. These differing viewpoints are important because they suggest different ways to prevent stress at work
(Durand, 2003). According to Spurgeon, Harrington and Cooper (1997) existing data on stress relate largely to
situations where working hours exceed 50 a week and there is a lack of information on hours below this level,
and in most cases of direct relevance to the European community proposal. This therefore suggests that the
extent of applicability of such findings to other regions such as Africa and Asia is limited. Other investigations
of stress relate to shift work where a range of modifying factors is likely to influence the level and nature of
health and performance outcomes (Spurgeon, Harrington & Cooper, 1997). Stress is the second most reported
work-related health problem and the number of people suffering from stress-related conditions caused or made
worse by work is likely to increase (Fimian, Fastenau, & Thomas, 2009). Although the importance of individual
differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that certain working conditions, such as excessive
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workload demands, section of operation and conflicting expectations, are stressful to most people (Luk, 2009).
Such evidence argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions (for example, noise, lighting, smells, heat),
shift work, long hours, travel, risk and danger, new technology, work overload and work underload as the key
source of workplace stress, and for job redesign as a primary prevention strategy (Luk, 2009). In the researchers’
opinion, most of these working conditions (for example, noise, lighting, smells, heat) are experienced most by
employees at the production departments compared to those outside that terrain. According to Bellani, Furlani,
Gechi and Pezzolta (1996) factors intrinsic to the job, role in the organization, personality and coping strategies,
relationship with employees, career development, home and work interface.
A direct effect on stress outcomes could be psychological and/or physical health problems (Patton, 1990;Plante,
1995). The demands on the individual in the workplace reach out into the homes and social lives of employees.
Long, uncertain or unsocial hours, working away from home, taking work home, high levels of responsibility, job
insecurity and job relocation may all adversely affect family responsibilities and leisure activities (Young &
Ogden, 2008). Patton (1990) argues that the sources of stress differs from one department of the organization to the
other and thus two people working in the same organization but in different department will experience different
levels of stress and it is envisioned that there might be variations in the health and safety of the employees as
wellStudies (e.g., Wu, Wang, & Lan, 2007) show that stressful working conditions are actually associated with
increased absenteeism, tardiness, and intentions by workers to quit their jobs-all of which has a negative effect
on the bottom line. Studies indicate that policies benefiting worker health also benefit a successful organization
(Young & Ogden, 2008). Work stress has been shown to result in job dissatisfaction, burnout (physical,
emotional, and mental exhaustion), staff turnover, occupational illness and injuries, reduced mental health,
depression, and even suicide (Lundstrom, 2002). Workplace stress and mental ill health often go hand in hand, so
it's important to look at the nature of the relationship between the two, in particular how workplace stress can act as
a trigger to mental health problems (Bennett & Kelaher, 2004). According to Costa (1997), nearly three in every
ten employees will have a mental health problem in any one year, the great majority of which will be anxiety and
depressive disorders resulting from workplace stress. Half of all days lost through mental ill health are due to
anxiety and stress conditions. The severity of the statistics warrants a study in this area in especially in
Sub-Saharan in an attempt to ensure regional literature balance. Durand (2003) established a strong relationship
between job stress and a variety of ailments such as mood and sleep disturbances, upset stomach and headache,
and disturbed relationships with family and friends.
According to Alberta (2008), some stress may be necessary to serve as some form of challenge or positive stress
but may lead to some mental and physical changes when intensified and cannot be handled. Many studies have
suggested that psychologically demanding jobs that allow employees little control over the work process
increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (Bennett & Kelaher, 2004). There is a growing concern that stressful
working conditions interfere with safe work practices and set the stage for injuries at work (Bennett & Kelaher,
2004). The changing world of work is making increased demands on workers, through downsizing and
outsourcing, the greater need for flexibility in terms of function and skills, increasing use of temporary contracts,
increased job insecurity and work intensification (with higher workload and more pressure), and poor work-life
balance.
Job stress has been a relatively neglected area of research among industrial/organizational psychologists (Beehr
& Newman, 2006) and this situation is especially grave in Sub-Saharan Africa and for that matter Ghana. The
rate of industrialization in Ghana, as a strongly emerging middle level income status economy and a spot light
within the Sub-Saharan terrain is impressing and this ascendancy and has led to larger percentage of the Ghanaian
workforce being exposed to workplace physical, chemical, biological and psychological stressors. Not to mention
the fierce competition among organizations within industries that persistently calls for demonstrating citizenship
behaviour (Badu & Asumeng, 2013). It is however fascinating to ask whether a nation like Ghana has got a system
for anticipating and monitoring the likely effects of these strides on employees? Empirical research interest on
health and safety has received very little attention from the Ghanaian outlook.
It is intriguing to know that not much literature is there from the Ghanaian perspective on this humanitarian area
and if there is, most are unempirical reports of tasked agencies mandated to regulate such occurrences on policy
lines. Most production organizations are no exception when it comes to organizational stress. Given the wide
range of potential and/or actual undesired events associated with the myriad of work groups in Ghana, there is the
need to have a comprehensive provision for occupational safety and health standards and practice in the nation,
with an unflinching national leadership, support and commitment. This can arguably be done properly on the basis
of research grounding. Undertaking an empirical study to unravel the predictors of health and safety from the
researchers’ scrutiny should spur and stimulate empirical research interest. This attempt is aimed at igniting the
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attention of policy makers about the need to constitute a national body, policy or process that governs
Occupational Safety and Health Management in Ghana as this is absent presently. In an attempt to bridge the above
gaps in global and regional literature, the present study focuses on job stress and sector of operation as correlates
of employee health and safety in a manufacturing company of Ghana.
1.1 Objectives of the Study
Specifically, the following objectives were achieved:
1) To ferret out the relationship between organizational stress and worker health and safety.
2) Ascertain whether there will be any significant difference in employee health and safety due to their
department/sector of work.
3) To find out whether employees who go through shift work will experience lower level of health and safety
compared to those who do not go through shift work.
2. Underpinning Theories
Martens Multidimensional Health theory (Martens, 2001) and Environmental Stress Model (Baum, Singer &
Baum, 1981) formed the basis for the present study. Multidimensional Health Theory (Martens, 2001) is based
upon the notion that psychological health is multidimensional in nature, composed of a cognitive component and
a somatic component. Multidimensional theory specifically hypothesizes two things (1) a negative linear
relationship exists between cognitive state in terms of stress, depression, anxiety and health, and (2) An
inverted-U relationship exists between somatic stress, depression, anxiety and health. According to the
multidimensional theory, in the case of cognitive state anxiety, stress and depression, as anxiety increase,
performance and health begins to deteriorate. In the case of somatic state anxiety, as anxiety, stress, and
depression increase athletic performance and health increases to a certain level, and after that level athletic
performance begins to drop. Somatic state anxiety forms an inverted U-shape. On a similar note the
environmental stress model posits that elements within the environment (in this case the work environment)
cause stress. Stress is an intervening variable, which is defined as a reaction to these elements. The reaction
involves emotional, behavioural and physiological. According to Baum, Singer and Baum (1981) who are the
major proponents of this model, these components do not occur in isolation. The behavioural and emotional
constitute the psychological aspect. The psychological and physiological then becomes a unitary factor within
the environmental stress model. Based on the assumptions of the above theories, the present study examined job
stress, department of work as predictors of health and safety of employees
2.1 Related Studies
Piko (1999) stated that the issue of occupational stress among employee is a major concern in health policy and
he found the level of stress experienced by employee to be dependent on the sector of the organization which
they worked. Chan, Lai, Ko, and Boey (2000) found a significantly negative relationship between stress and the
amount of accident that occurred among six professional groups including physicians, engineers, life insurance
agents, lawyers, nurses, and teachers. Zamanian, Kakooei, Ayattollahi, Choobineh, and Seraji, (2007) conducted
a study to determine the prevalence of mental disorders among shift workers. 45.4% of employees were found to
suffer from mental disorders and this was more common among females. Similarly, anxiety and somatic
symptoms were more prevalent than other types of mental disorders (43.2 and 34.5%, respectively). The
prevalence of depression and social dysfunction were 11.2 and 79.5%, respectively. Shift work was significantly
associated with lower health than non-shift workers. A study by Adjei (2009) on work-stress and its management
among senior staff of the University of Cape-Coast in Ghana, discovered that respondents experienced both
physiological and psychological symptoms of stress. It was also found that workload, lack of recognition for
good effort, and inadequate opportunities for career development were prominent stressors among the
respondents.
Iqbal and Kokash (2011) conducted a study to assess the level of stress among employees working in the
production sectors and administration sectors. The study was conducted to explore the production and
administrators perception towards occupational stress using established questionnaire, data collected from five
departments in the organization. Research findings indicated a significantly higher level of stress among
employees in the production sector compared to the administrators. Sanders (2009) assessed the perceptions of
stress among employees in the production sectors and administrators. The study indicated no significant difference
in the level of employee health among administrators and production members even though production members
experienced higher level of stress compared to administrators.
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Gmelch, Wilke and Lovrich (1996) investigated identifiable patterns of stress and health issues among the
different sectors of a manufacturing company. From a sample of 12 organizations, 920 employees took part in
the study. The response rate was 75.28%. The multidimensionality of the 45-item Faculty Stress Index,
investigated through factor analysis, resulted in five distinct dimensions of perceived stress: reward and
recognition (55% common variance); time constraints (12% common variance); departmental influence (7%
common variance); professional identity (6% common variance); and customer interaction (6% common
variance). Each factor was also analyzed according to professional and personal characteristics, and the analysis
resulted indicated a significantly higher level of stress among employees in production sectors for almost all the
five distinct dimensions of the perceived stress. Those in the production sectors were also found to experience
lower levels of psychological health and safety.
Reeves, Newling-Ward and Gissane (2004) revealed that, night workers did not eat more than day workers, but
ate smaller meals and snacks over a greater time frame. Night shift worker revealed significant difference
(p<0.05) in food intake patterns on work and rest days, while day workers did not. Because shift work is a factor
in the timing of food consumption and typically there is a lack of good food facilities at night, it suggested that
this has the potential to cause difficulties in the establishment of healthy eating patterns. This study also failed to
have a control group hence the need for a comparison between a day shift and a night shift. Akerstedt (2007)
examine the time of day that one work and its effect on sleep and performance and found that night work induces
more errors in performance and decrease the ability to concentrate. Demi (2006) did a study among nurses
working in different departments in a hospital and analyses showed that nurses experiencing stress from their
workplace were significantly more likely to use wishful thinking, painful problem solving, and avoidance as
coping strategies, whereas stress originating from patient care was more likely to be dealt with using positive
appraisal and acceptance. Nurses working overloaded sectors were found to experience higher levels of stress than
those whose workload was not higher. To the extent of the researchers search and as reviewed above, none of
them were conducted in the sub-Saharan regions (Ghana inclusive indicating that health and safety literatures are
very scarce in Ghana and thus the need to undertake the study in Ghana. Moreover, the results of the studies
have been inconsistent. Some of the studies reviewed (e.g., Gmelch, Wilke & Lovrich, 1996; Sander, 2009) have
also indicated no significant relationship between stress and health; others (e.g., Iqbal & Kokash, 2011) have
found a significant positive relationship between stress and health. Based on the above theories and literature
reviewed, the present study examines job stress, department of work and shift pattern as predictors of worker
health and safety in Ghana.
Giovani (1996) found that shift work impacted negatively on employees’ health and well-being. However, Giovani
(1996) suggested some other variables such as work situations and social conditions at work place can affect
employee health and safety. One of such variables may include the section of operation and its impact on health
and wellbeing of employees. Landsbergis (2003) argued that there seem to be little research evidence on the recent
trends in the organization of work and the effect on worker health. It has been about a decade since Landsbergis
(2003) threw that challenge to scholars but the available evidence has not change much in the Sub-Saharan region
with Ghana inclusive.
2.2 Statement of Hypotheses
Based on the objectives and literature reviewed above, the study tested the following hypotheses:
1) There will be a significant negative relationship between employee stress and health and safety.
2) Workers in the production sectors will experience lower health and safety compared to workers in the
non-production sectors from the Ghanaian setting.
3) Employees who go through shift work will experience lower health and safety compared to employees who do
not go through shift work.
2.3 Operational Definitions
Stress: experiencing strong physical pressures or difficulties as indicated on the score on the stress scale.
Higher stress: a score of 56–85 as measured on the stress scale
Low stress: a score of 17–55 as measured on the stress scale
Health: The condition of an individual’s body and the extent to which it is prone to or free from illness.
Safety: The extent to which a worker is free from potential harm or injury.
Sector: Sector is used interchangeably with department or section to mean an employee’s area of operation.
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Production section: working in core production point (beverage and cereal sectors) of the organization.
Non-production section: employees in logistics, distribution centre and central administration units.
3. Method
As suggested by Wiersma and Jurs (2005), the ‘methods and procedures is really the heart of the research,
activities should be described with as much detail as possible and the continuity between them should be
apparent’ (p. 416).
3.1 Research Setting
The manufacturing industry used for the study produces beverages, cereals and milk in large sums to meet the
demands of its consumers. Such an organization with high standing reputation is likely to be concerned with
issues of Stress and Health and Safety of employees. There are however, two groups of employees namely;
production and non-production employees. Those in the production are expected to meet specific targets set for
each production department every week in relation to the amount or quantity of beverages, cereals and milk to be
produced. Most employees are left with the option to work overtime to meet these goals. Supervisors may also
be under pressure to produce products in their batches with no shortfalls in quality. Such items are either
reworked on or destroyed depending on the state, this to a greater extent puts pressure on not only supervisors
but also the other production team members since they are to restart the whole process. The management team
and other senior staff members (most of them in supervisory or administrative positions) are required to work
straight day from 8:30am to 16:30pm (Greenwich Meridian Time). Other employees (most of whom are junior
staff) run shift-work for morning, afternoon and evening, that in the period of 5:00am to 2:00pm, 2:00pm to
8:00pm and 8:00pm to 5:00am respectively. The researchers considered this manufacturing organization to be
most suitable setting for the study.
3.2 Research Design
The study design was a cross sectional survey. Respondents were assessed by taking a cross-section of the
occurrences at a given time and analysing the cross-section carefully. This method facilitates asking a large
number of workers their opinions in a relatively less time and cost effective manner (Oppenheim, 1992).
3.3 Population
Since its establishment, the manufacturing company has significantly stimulated the Ghanaian economy with a
dynamic, well-trained and dedicated workforce, manufacturing and marketing well-known brands and so ensuring
the commitment level of its employees have a direct influence on the Ghanaian economy. The current population
size of the manufacturing company is about 730. This population was chosen for the study because the
researchers found it appropriate since the industry is noted to be a renowned organization that is involved in
mass production of beverages, cereals and milks alongside other non-productive activities, with different
segments and have garnered initiative for worker wellbeing. For this reason the health and safety conditions of
workers was of great concern to the researchers.
3.4 Sample
According to Buckingham and Saunders (2004) a sample may consist of a tiny fraction of the whole target group,
but provided it is selected carefully and methodologically, it can provide remarkably accurate estimates of the
parameters of the whole population. Out of the general population, 120 participants were sampled from the
various departments stated (cereals, beverages, logistics and central distribution centre) of both the production
and non-production sections for the study, 30 participants were selected from each of these departments
(beverages, cereals, logistics department, and central distribution centre). The sample comprised management,
senior and junior staff members.In line with Tabacknick and Fidell’s (2007) recommendation, the minimum
sample size for parametric testing should be 104+M for testing individual predictors (where M is the number of
predictors). Drawing from the above, the minimum sample size required to test for the individual variables
should be 107 and above to be able valid conclusions. Table 1 below is a summary of the demographic
characteristics of respondents.
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Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents
Variable Frequency Percentage
Sex
 Male 66 55.0
 Female 54 45.0
Sector
 Production 66 55.0
 Non-production 54 45.0
Rank
 Senior 30 25.0
 Junior 90 75.0
The demographic analysis revealed a male dominance (55%) of the participants as against females (45%).
Moreover, 25% and 75% occupied senior managerial and junior managerial positions respectively. Most of these
junior staff works in the production sectors where safety procedures are requisite.
3.5 Sampling Technique
Stratified random sampling technique combined with purposive sampling technique was used to obtain the
sample. That is the, departments for the study was grouped into production and non-production sections with
Beverages and Cereals making up the production section and Logistics, Central Distribution Centre and
administration units making up the non-production section.
3.6 Instruments
Standardized questionnaires were used for collecting data for the study. The scales used were divided into three
sections labelled ‘A’ to C’. The section ‘A’ measured the demographic data of workers such as sex, age, sector
of working and number of years in service.
Section ‘B’ was an adapted version of the Job Stress scale.The scale consists of 10 test items measured on a five
point Likert scale ranging from; (1)–often to (5)–never. The following items 3, 5, 6, 9, 13 and 17 were reversed
scored. Some items on the scale includes, ‘do you have to work very fast’ and ‘does your work demand too
much effort’.
Gravesham Borough Council questionnaire was adapted to measure employee level of health and safety. The
scale has 39 items measured on a three point scale that is yes, no or not applicable. The questionnaire has a
cronbach alpha of .88. Some items on the scale includes: ‘I normally feel sick’, ‘I seldomly cause accident’.
3.7 Pilot Study
To ascertain the reliability and the appropriateness of the two instruments, 30 participants consisting of 15
production workers and 15 non-production workers of a different but analogous manufacturing company were
used and a split half procedure produced a reliability coefficient of 0.82 and 0.79 for job stress and health and
safety questionnaires respectively. The possible minimum and maximum scores for the health and safety scale
were 39 and 117 respectively with a higher score indicating a lower level of health and safety and vice versa.
4. Results
Data was analysed in two sections, the first section consisted of the demographic characteristics describing the
frequency and percentage of all the variables employed in the study. The second section dealt with the inferential
statistics for testing the various hypotheses.
4.1 Hypotheses Testing
Hypothesis 1: there will be a significant negative relationship between employee stress and health and safety. This
hypothesis was analysed using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation because the relationship between two
simple variables (stress, health and safety) were established.
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Table 2. Employee stress and worker health and safety
Measures 1 2
Employee stress - .319**
Health and Safety - -
Note. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).
As shown in Table 2, the relationship between employee stress and health and safety was significant (r = .319,
p<.05). This means that an increase in employee stress will lead to a decrease in health and safety and a decrease in
employee stress will lead to an increase in health and safety.
The independent t-test was used to analyze this hypothesis that workers in the production section will experience
lower health and safety compared to workers in the non-production section as mean scores of two independent
groups were compared. Results are presented on Table 3 below.
Table 3. Section of work and worker health and safety
Section N Mean SD df t p
Production 66 21.65 2.03 118 .45 .38
Non-Production 54 20.14 3.13
From Table 3, the mean and standard deviation of health and safety level of employees in the production sector
is (M=21.65, SD=2.03) and that of employees in the non-production section is (M= 20.14, SD=3.13). The
independent t-test results showed that, the effect of section of work on employee health and safety is not
significant (t(118) = .45, p=ns).
The third hypothesis was tested using Independent t test because two independent scores were compared. The
results are summarized in Table 4 below.
Table 4. Type of shift work on worker health and safety
Shift N Mean SD df t p
Shift work 85 64.55 7.16 118 5.63 .000
No shift work 35 24.70 12.13
From Table 4, there is a difference in the mean and standard deviation of health and safety of employees who run
on shift (M=64.55, SD =7.16) and that of employees who do not run on shift (M=24.70, SD =12.13). The
independent t test results showed that the effect of type of shift on employee health and safety is significant
(t(118)= .01, p<.05). Therefore the third hypothesis that states that employees who go through shift work will
experience lower health and safety compared to employees who do not go through shift work was supported.
4.2 Summary of Main Findings
1) There was a significant negative relationship between employee stress and health and safety.
2) No significant difference was found in the level of health and safety among workers in the production sectors
compared to workers in the non-production sectors.
3) Employees who go through shift work were found to experience lower health and safety compared to
employees who do not go through shift work.
5. Discussion
The present study examined job stress, sector of work and shift work pattern as correlates of worker health and
safety in a manufacturing company inGhana. Danquah (2002) emphasized that no human is stress-free in life and
that stress is unavoidable. The first hypothesis that stated that there will be a significant negative relationship
between employee stress and health and safety was supported. This means that as employee stress increases, the
level of health declines and employees are likely be involved in accident. This finding is consistent with many
previous findings (Barling, 1990; Chan, Lai, Ko, & Boey, 2000; Piko, 1999; Plante & Bouchard, 1995).Chan,
Lai, Ko, and Boey (2000) especially assessed the relationship between stress, health and safety among
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employees of a manufacturing companies. They found that the level of stress correlates negatively with
employee’s health. The study again found a significant negative relationship between stress and the amount of
accident that occurred.The significant negative relationship between stress of employees and their level of health
and safety can also be explained with the Multidimensional Health Theory (Martens, 2001). According to this
theory, psychological health is multidimensional in nature, composed of a cognitive component and a somatic
component. Per the multidimensional theory, in the case of cognitive state anxiety, stress and depression, as
anxiety increase, performance and health begins to deteriorate. Majority of the sample for the present study were
engaged in the production section, where alertness, attention and good coordination are required. This may
demand some amount of cognitive strength leading to the stress. This likely explains why a negative relationship
was found between stress of the manufacturing employees and worker health and safety.
The second hypothesis that workers in the production sectors will experience lower health and safety compared to
workers in the non-production sectors was not supported. This means that employee do not differ in the level of
health and safety whether they work at the production or non-production stage. The present finding agrees with
many researchers (Chan, Lai, Ko, & Boey, 2000; Iqbal & Kokash, 2011; Piko, 1999). These researchers found no
significant difference in the level of stress and health among production and non-production sector employees.
This finding is quite not surprising as employees in both production and non-production sectors are required by
current organizational demands to go beyond their normal job description by performing many acts of citizenship
behaviour (Agyemang, 2013; Badu & Asumeng, 2013) leading to stress and lower health and safety. The
inconsistency between the present study and that of Gmelch, Wilke and Lovrich (1996) can be due to the fact that
Gmelch, Wilke and Lovrich (1996) used university employees whilst the present study used manufacturing
employees. It is likely some other cultural factors and organizational factors may have influenced the findings of
Gmelch, Wilke and Lovrich (1996). The inconsistency of the present finding with that of Gmelch, Wilke and
Lovrich (1996) who indicated that production sector employees experience higher level of stress and lower health
compared to employees in the non-production section should ignite more research to confirm or otherwise
contingent on culture and sample. This is especially recommended as there is a high paucity of literature on this
issue.
The third hypothesis that employees who go through shift work will experience lower health and safety compared
to employees who do not go through shift work was supported. This means that the level of health is low for
employees who run on shift compared to those who do not.
This finding implies that night shift working have a significant effect on employee wellbeing and arguably their
personal and social life. Prolonged shift work, especially night shift work, also has a health risk as it produces
symptoms that correspond closely to those of mild or moderate distress (Efinger, 1995). The present finding
from the Ghanaian setting is consistent with some past findings (Akerstedt, 2007; Demi, 2006; Giovani, 1996;
Zamanian, Kakooei, Ayattollahi, Karimian & Seraji, 2008). Night shift work was significantly associated with
anxiety more than morning and afternoon shift work. A number of reasons may have accounted for why shift
workers experienced lower health and safety compared to employees who do not go. Shift workers and night
workers often get tired and sleepy because of their work schedule. Being overly tired makes it difficult to
concentrate, which increases the possibility of errors or accidents. This can be a risk both to the worker and other
workers. Working at night makes it difficult to get enough sleep. Brain and body functions slow down during the
night time and early morning hours. This makes employees less active and reduces performance and increases
the risk of accidents (Smith, Folkard, Tucker & Macdonald, 1994). In agreement with Akerstedt (1995), when
working in the night shift, a person is at work when his or her circadian rhythm is low and asleep when it is high.
Such a schedule means that a person is trying to stay alert when the circadian rhythm is low. This low-point
affects physical activity and the ability to concentrate. If a worker also has lost sleep, fatigue could combine with
the circadian low-point to double the effect on one’s ability to perform. It is therefore not surprising that there
was a ripple effect of shift workers and worker health and safety in the Ghanaian setting
5.1 Limitations of the Study and Future Research Directions
This present study like other studies is not devoid of limitations. It was very difficult getting a sample size that
was equal in age, gender, and equal junior and senior staff for the study. The relatively small sample size limits
the extent of generalizing the study findings. It is recommended that future researchers adopt a comparative
approach that compares two organizations with one that run total shift and the other that do not run shift to
ascertain whether there might be parity in findings contingent on the environment. It is likely other factors
relating to the work situation may affect employee health and safety. It is recommended that these many
unknown factors be unravelled through research. The researchers recommend that future researchers consider the
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67
extent to which an employee’s psychological capital will moderate the relationship between stress and worker
health and safety.
5.2 Implications and Contributions of the Study
The present study is an attempt to bridge the gap in the paucity of literature on how stress and sector of operation
correlates with worker health and safety. The researchers sampled manufacturing workers and veers off from
testing health and safety with frequently used medical workers. The study finding on section of operation widens
the scholarly debate and deepens the woolliness and inconsistency of findings and spurs many future scholars
into this area of research. The study implies that distress arising from the workplace varies from one working
condition to the other. Support services should be preventative, so that health problems for employees can be
averted. This requires more research into identifying the most effective way of detecting when individuals are
experiencing early difficulties, and of improving their stress management techniques so as to prevent the
transition to severe distress.
In conclusion, the present study findings offer an empirical backbone to a developing country like Ghana and
many other developing countries with weak and fragmented health and safety policy bodies. Employers and
employees alike must find ways to manage the likely antecedents of low worker health and safety. Adequate
measures must be taken to control the amount of stress in work settings. It is recommended that employers take
necessary steps towards introducing a culture where stress prevention plan exists, and stress is acknowledged and
managed as part of everyday routine. This is a necessary step to curb the fragmentations of health and safety bodies’
where different industries have different health and safety policies. The researchers thus recommends that a health
and safety authority be instituted in most developing countries to regulate health and safety issues at all levels.
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